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What are the major differences between calvinism and lutherarism?
While both Calvinism and Lutheranism are major branches of Protestant Christianity that emerged from the Reformation, they have key theological differences, particularly concerning predestination, the Lord's Supper, and the nature of grace.
Predestination and Salvation
The most significant difference lies in their understanding of predestination and how salvation is achieved.
Calvinism emphasizes the sovereignty of God to the extreme, asserting that God has predestined certain people, known as "the elect," for salvation and others for damnation. This is often summarized by the acronym TULIP, which stands for:
Total Depravity: All people are sinful and unable to save themselves.
Unconditional Election: God's choice to save is not based on any foreseen merit or faith.
Limited Atonement: Christ's death was sufficient for all, but effective only for the elect.
Irresistible Grace: The elect cannot resist God's saving grace.
Perseverance of the Saints: Once saved, the elect cannot lose their salvation.
Lutheranism also holds that salvation is entirely a work of God (monergism), and that human beings are unable to save themselves. However, it rejects the Calvinist idea of "double predestination" (predestination to damnation). Lutherans believe that God wants all people to be saved and that grace can be resisted. While a person's salvation is a gift from God, it is possible for a believer to fall from grace.
The Lord's Supper
Another major point of contention is the nature of Christ's presence in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper (Communion).
Calvinism teaches that Christ is spiritually present in the sacrament. The bread and wine are symbolic, but through the action of the Holy Spirit, the communicant truly partakes of Christ's body and blood in a spiritual, not physical, sense.
Lutheranism holds that Christ is truly and physically present "in, with, and under" the elements of bread and wine. They reject the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation (where the bread and wine literally become the body and blood of Christ), but they maintain a belief in the "real presence" of Christ's body and blood in a mysterious, sacramental union.
Other Differences
Emphasis: While Luther's theology emphasizes justification by faith alone, Calvin's theology is more focused on the glory and sovereignty of God.
Worship: Lutheran worship tends to be more liturgical and structured, retaining some elements of Catholic tradition, while Calvinist worship (particularly in its early forms) was more austere and simplified, focusing on the preaching of the Word.
Lutheran and Reformed Differences on Justification
This video explores a core theological difference between the two traditions, focusing on the doctrine of justification.

Lutheran Vs Calvinistic Views of Justification - YouTube
Dr. Jordan B Cooper · 26K views

Did calvinist kill lutherans?
Historically, the relationship between Calvinists and Lutherans was complex and often fraught with tension, but it's important to distinguish between theological conflicts and widespread, organized violence like the religious wars of the period.
Theological Conflict: The two denominations were in frequent disagreement over core doctrines, particularly the nature of the Lord's Supper and predestination. This led to bitter disputes, condemnations, and even the rejection of formal unity. Lutheran leaders, for instance, were wary of what they saw as the "sacramentarian" views of Calvinists and sometimes accused them of straying from the original Reformation message.
Political and Social Context: The conflicts of the Reformation era were not purely theological. They were deeply intertwined with politics, power, and the control of territories. While Calvinists and Lutherans were both on the "Protestant" side of the major conflicts with the Roman Catholic Church, there were also conflicts within Protestantism itself. The European Wars of Religion were often fought along confessional lines, and in some cases, this meant Calvinist-led states and armies fought against Lutheran ones, though these were more likely to be political or dynastic conflicts with a religious dimension. For example, the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) saw Lutheran and Calvinist territories on different sides of various alliances, though both were generally in opposition to the Catholic Habsburgs.
Individual Actions: While there is no evidence of a systematic campaign by Calvinists to "kill Lutherans" on a large scale, the actions of John Calvin himself and the authorities in Geneva are a different matter. Calvin's Geneva was known for its strict enforcement of religious and moral codes, and theological dissent was often met with severe punishment, including execution. The most famous example is the burning at the stake of Michael Servetus in 1553 for denying the Trinity and infant baptism. While Servetus was not a Lutheran, his execution demonstrates the intolerance of the time and the lengths to which religious authorities, including Calvinists, would go to suppress what they considered to be heresy.
In summary, while Calvinists and Lutherans didn't engage in a widespread, dedicated war of extermination against each other, their theological and political differences contributed to a climate of conflict during the Reformation and early modern periods. It is more accurate to say that there were instances where Calvinist and Lutheran states were on opposing sides in wars, and that religious intolerance of the era, seen in Geneva and elsewhere, could lead to the persecution and execution of those with different theological views.
Why did calvinism prevail at the end?
Calvinism became more widespread than Lutheranism for a combination of political, social, and structural reasons. While both were major Protestant movements, Calvinism was better equipped for international expansion.
1. Internationalism vs. Localism
Lutheranism was largely confined to Germany and Scandinavia. It often became a state-sanctioned religion under the principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose realm, his religion"), which meant the ruler of a territory determined its official religion. This tied Lutheranism to specific political boundaries and made it less of a missionary movement.
Calvinism, on the other hand, was intentionally international. John Calvin and his followers saw Geneva, Switzerland, as a "school of Christ" for the entire world. They trained religious refugees from across Europe and sent them back to their home countries as missionaries. This created a network of committed activists who spread Calvinist ideas far and wide.
2. Organizational Structure
Calvinism had a more disciplined and adaptable organizational structure. Its Presbyterian system, governed by elected elders, was well-suited for a revolutionary movement. This decentralized model gave local congregations a degree of autonomy and resilience, making it harder for centralized authorities to suppress them.
Lutheranism, by contrast, tended to adopt a more top-down, hierarchical structure, often becoming a state church with a governing body of bishops appointed by the state. This made it less flexible and more reliant on political patronage for its survival.
3. Theological and Social Appeal
Calvinism’s theology, particularly its emphasis on God's sovereignty and the idea of "the elect," gave its followers a strong sense of purpose and a willingness to fight for their beliefs. This made it a militant and dynamic faith that appealed to a wide range of social classes, from the nobility in France and Scotland to the merchant class in the Netherlands.
The Calvinist ethos, often referred to as the Protestant work ethic, also resonated with the burgeoning capitalist economies of the time. The belief that worldly success could be a sign of divine favor encouraged hard work, frugality, and reinvestment, making Calvinism attractive in commercially-minded regions like the Netherlands and England.
Is Donald Trump an calvinist?
Donald Trump was raised in the Presbyterian faith, which has its roots in Calvinism. However, in 2020 he stated that he no longer identified as Presbyterian and now considers himself a "non-denominational Christian."
While he was raised in a Presbyterian church, his public statements and associations with various religious figures and movements do not align with the core theological tenets of Calvinism. For instance, some of his close religious advisors and supporters are associated with charismatic Christianity and prosperity theology, which are theological viewpoints that are very different from the historical doctrines of Calvinism.
How many calvinist and lutherans exist proportionally?t
Determining the exact number of adherents for any Christian denomination is challenging, as different organizations use varying criteria (e.g., baptized members, active members, or those who simply self-identify). However, based on the most widely cited data from major international church bodies, we can provide a general idea of the proportional sizes.
Lutheranism: The Lutheran World Federation (LWF), a global communion of Lutheran churches, reports over 77 million members worldwide. Other, more conservative Lutheran bodies also exist, bringing the total number of Lutherans to an estimated 80-90 million. Major concentrations of Lutherans are found in Europe (particularly Scandinavia and Germany), as well as significant and growing communities in Africa (Ethiopia, Tanzania) and Asia (Indonesia).
Calvinism (Reformed Churches): The World Communion of Reformed Churches (WCRC), which includes Presbyterian, Congregational, and other Reformed denominations, claims to represent over 100 million Christians. This number is often cited as a conservative estimate, and the total number of people who identify with or belong to churches with Calvinist roots is likely higher, potentially reaching 100 million or more. Calvinism is globally diverse, with large populations in places like South Korea, Nigeria, and the United States, in addition to its traditional strongholds in the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Scotland.
Based on these figures, it appears that both Lutheranism and Calvinism are of a similar size, with Calvinism having a slight edge in terms of total adherents.
Are the anabaptists calvinists too?
No, the Anabaptists are not Calvinists. They are a distinct branch of the Reformation known as the "Radical Reformation," and they were heavily persecuted by both Catholics and the mainstream Protestant "magisterial reformers" (including Calvinists and Lutherans).
The fundamental difference between Anabaptists and Calvinists lies in their core theological principles and their relationship to the state.
1. Baptism
Calvinism: Calvinists practice infant baptism (paedobaptism). They believe that baptism is a sign of the covenant between God and the family, much like circumcision in the Old Testament. They hold that the children of believers are part of the covenant community and should be baptized.
Anabaptism: This is the defining feature of the movement. The term "Anabaptist" literally means "one who baptizes again." They rejected infant baptism entirely, arguing that baptism is only valid when a person is old enough to make a conscious profession of faith. They practiced believer's baptism, which meant they "re-baptized" adults who had been baptized as infants.
2. Church and State
Calvinism: Calvin believed in a close relationship between the church and the state, an idea called a theocracy. In Geneva, for example, the Consistory (the church's governing body) had the power to enforce religious and moral laws on the entire population, with the backing of the civil government.
Anabaptism: Anabaptists were radical in their belief in the separation of church and state. They held that the church should be a voluntary community of believers, separate from worldly governments. For this reason, many Anabaptists (like the Mennonites and Amish) embraced pacifism, refused to swear oaths, and did not participate in civil government or military service.
3. Salvation and Discipleship
Calvinism: As discussed previously, Calvinism emphasizes God's absolute sovereignty and the concept of predestination. Salvation is a monergistic act of God, meaning it is entirely God's work, not a cooperative effort with humanity.
Anabaptism: Anabaptists, while still believing in the importance of God's grace, place a strong emphasis on discipleship and the free will of the individual. They see salvation as an ongoing process of obedience and a life patterned after the teachings of Jesus, particularly the Sermon on the Mount. This leads to a theology that is more synergistic (a cooperative effort between God and man) than Calvinism's monergism.
In short, Anabaptism was a radical rejection of the very ideas that Calvinism and other "magisterial" reform movements were built on, particularly the unity of church and state and the practice of infant baptism.
How nudists, anabaptists and calvinists relate in Low Countries in 16 century?
The relationship between Anabaptists, Calvinists, and radical nudist groups in the Low Countries during the 16th century was one of intense opposition and persecution. It's a complex history, but here's a breakdown of how these groups related to one another:
1. The Anabaptist-Calvinist Conflict
The relationship between Anabaptists and Calvinists was primarily one of deep theological animosity and mutual persecution.
Rejection of Each Other's Core Beliefs: As mentioned before, Calvinists, along with Lutherans and Catholics, practiced infant baptism and maintained a close connection between church and state. Anabaptists rejected both of these concepts, which made them a direct threat to the social and political order.
Persecution: The Anabaptists were viewed as dangerous radicals by almost all of Europe's established powers, including the Calvinists. The Calvinist-led government in Geneva, for example, was known for its harsh penalties for what it considered heresy, and Anabaptists were a primary target. In the Low Countries (modern-day Netherlands and Belgium), the persecution of Anabaptists was relentless, led first by the Catholic Spanish authorities and later by the dominant Calvinist forces after the Dutch Revolt.
The "M;nster Rebellion": This event, while it took place in Germany, had a profound impact on the Anabaptist reputation in the Low Countries. In 1534-1535, radical Anabaptists took control of the city of M;nster, establishing a millenarian "kingdom" that practiced polygamy and communal property. This rebellion was a catastrophic failure, and the leaders were brutally tortured and executed. The episode cemented a widespread view among all other Christian denominations that Anabaptists were a violent, fanatical threat to society. This single event led to a massive crackdown on Anabaptists everywhere, including the Low Countries, and it forced the majority of the movement (like the followers of Menno Simons, the "Mennonites") to embrace strict pacifism.
2. Anabaptists and "Nudists" (Adamites)
This is a specific, radical expression of a small faction within the Anabaptist movement, not representative of Anabaptists as a whole.
The Adamites: The Adamites were a small, historical sect that believed they had regained the innocence of Adam and Eve before the Fall. As a sign of this, they would participate in public or ritual nudity. This practice was revived in the 16th century by some radical Anabaptist groups.
The "Naked Runners" of Amsterdam: A notable incident occurred in Amsterdam in 1535, where a small group of Anabaptists ran naked through the streets as a prophetic act, crying out "Woe to the wicked!" They believed this was a sign that the end times were near.
Not Representative of the Majority: This type of extreme behavior was confined to a small, radical minority within Anabaptism, and it was widely condemned by the majority of the movement, particularly by the pacifist followers of Menno Simons who sought to distance themselves from such radicalism. Mainstream Anabaptists (the Mennonites) were known for their humble, simple dress and their rejection of worldly excesses, making them the direct opposite of these Adamite groups.
Summary
In the 16th-century Low Countries:
Anabaptists were a distinct and diverse group, most of whom were peaceful and pacifist, but they were still heavily persecuted by the ruling powers.
Calvinists, as they gained political power during the Dutch Revolt, became the dominant Protestant force. They viewed the Anabaptists with suspicion and hostility, and they continued to persecute them.
"Nudists" were a tiny, extreme faction of Anabaptism (often called Adamites), whose behavior was condemned by mainstream Anabaptists and used by their opponents (including Calvinists) as propaganda to portray the entire Anabaptist movement as dangerously fanatical.
How iconoplasts, anabaptists and calvinists related to each other?
While the three groups were active in the same region and time period, they were not related in a unified way. Instead, their relationship was characterized by a mix of theological opposition, political conflict, and shared hostility from the Roman Catholic Church.
Here's how they relate:
1. Iconoclasm and Calvinism: A Complex Alliance
Iconoclasm is the act of destroying religious images and monuments. It's not a religious group itself, but a radical practice adopted by some Protestants. In the Low Countries, it was a central part of the Calvinist movement.
Theological Foundation: Calvin's theology, unlike Luther's, was deeply suspicious of religious images. Calvin believed they were an invitation to idolatry, or the worship of created things instead of God. His followers sought to "purify" churches by stripping them of statues, stained glass, and paintings, turning them into plain, white-walled spaces focused on the preaching of God's Word.
The Beeldenstorm: In 1566, the Low Countries experienced a wave of iconoclastic riots known as the Beeldenstorm (Dutch for "statue storm"). Mobs, often led by Calvinist preachers, stormed Catholic churches and monasteries, destroying religious art. This event was a turning point in the Dutch Revolt, as it served as a public and violent act of defiance against the Spanish Catholic rulers.
Calvinism's Role: While not all iconoclasts were Calvinists, the movement provided the main theological justification and organizational force behind the most widespread and systematic acts of image-breaking. This act was seen as a way to reclaim sacred spaces and assert the new Reformed faith against Catholic authority.
2. Anabaptists' Relationship to Both
Anabaptists were a completely different group with a unique theology that set them apart from both Calvinists and iconoclasts. They were persecuted by both.
Distinct from Iconoclasm: The mainstream, pacifist Anabaptist movement (the Mennonites) rejected violence in all forms, including the destruction of property. They were not involved in the Beeldenstorm. However, some very small, radical Anabaptist sects in the early part of the 16th century did engage in extreme acts, including violence and public displays like nudism, which were used by their opponents to discredit the entire movement.
Persecution by Calvinists: As Calvinists gained political power in the Low Countries, they became an established force that, like the Catholics before them, viewed Anabaptists as heretics and a threat to social order. Anabaptists were persecuted for their rejection of infant baptism, their refusal to swear oaths, and their separation from state-controlled society.
Summary
In the 16th-century Low Countries:
Iconoclasm was a tactic largely driven by Calvinists to cleanse churches of what they considered idolatry and to assert their political and religious identity.
Anabaptists were a separate and distinct movement, primarily known for believer's baptism and pacifism, who had no part in the iconoclastic riots.
The relationship between Calvinists and Anabaptists was hostile, with Calvinists actively participating in the persecution of Anabaptists, viewing them as theological and political rivals.
What were the earliest cases of iconoplasm in Low Countries in 16 century?
The earliest widespread and documented cases of iconoclasm in the Low Countries in the 16th century occurred in a single, concentrated event: the Beeldenstorm (Dutch for "statue storm") of 1566. While there may have been isolated, smaller-scale acts of image-breaking before this, the Beeldenstorm was the first widespread and systematic wave of iconoclasm that spread throughout the region and became a pivotal moment in the Dutch Revolt.
The Beeldenstorm of 1566
This was not a series of random, isolated events, but a coordinated movement fueled by Calvinist sermons and growing political and religious tensions.
Origin: The first recorded incident took place on August 10, 1566, in the Flemish village of Steenvoorde. A crowd, stirred by a Calvinist preacher, attacked and destroyed the religious images in a nearby convent.
Spread: From Steenvoorde, the iconoclastic fury spread like wildfire. Within days, it had reached major urban centers like Antwerp, Ghent, and Tournai, and then moved northward into Holland, affecting cities like Amsterdam, Delft, and Leiden.
Motivation: The iconoclasts, primarily Calvinists, saw religious images as a form of idolatry—a violation of the Second Commandment. For them, destroying these images was a way to purify churches and assert their religious identity against the Catholic rule of the Spanish Habsburgs.
The Context of Earlier Unrest
While 1566 marks the beginning of the major iconoclastic wave, the underlying tensions had been building for decades. The Low Countries were a hotbed of "Reformations," with various movements like Lutheranism and Anabaptism appearing from the 1520s onward. The Spanish authorities responded with severe persecution, executing more than 1,300 people for heresy between 1523 and 1566. This continuous persecution, combined with a bad harvest, famine, and political discontent, created the conditions that made the Beeldenstorm possible. However, there is no evidence of a series of iconoclastic events on the scale of 1566 in the decades before it.
What were the earliest cases of iconoplasm in EUROPE AND IN THE WHOLE WORLD INCLUDING the sack of Rome in 16 th century?
Iconoclasm has a long and complex history dating back to ancient times, but its earliest widespread and systematic cases in the 16th century were part of the Protestant Reformation, not the Sack of Rome. The Sack of Rome, while it included destruction and sacrilege, was a political and military event with a religious dimension, not an ideologically motivated iconoclastic movement in the same way.
Earliest Cases in the World
The earliest examples of systematic iconoclasm predate the 16th century by more than a thousand years and were not connected to the Reformation.
Ancient Civilizations: Iconoclasm existed in ancient civilizations for political and religious reasons. In ancient Egypt, for instance, pharaohs like Akhenaten attempted to erase the legacy of previous rulers by destroying their images and monuments.
Byzantine Empire: This is arguably the most famous and well-documented pre-modern example of iconoclasm. The Byzantine Iconoclasm was a period from roughly 726 to 842 CE when the Byzantine imperial and religious authorities prohibited and actively destroyed religious images or "icons." They were motivated by the belief that venerating images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints was a form of idolatry, a violation of the Old Testament's Second Commandment.
Earliest Cases in Europe (16th Century)
The 16th-century Protestant iconoclasm was a new development in European history, separate from the Byzantine era.
Z;rich (1523): Early instances of iconoclasm occurred in Switzerland, where Huldrych Zwingli's reformation movement led to the removal and destruction of images from churches. This was one of the earliest official acts of iconoclasm in the Reformation.
Wittenberg (1521-1522): While Martin Luther was away, his colleague Andreas Karlstadt, believing that images were a violation of the Ten Commandments, led a movement to destroy religious images and altars in Wittenberg. Luther, upon his return, condemned these acts.
The Beeldenstorm in the Low Countries (1566): This was the first large-scale, popular wave of iconoclasm in Europe. Starting in the village of Steenvoorde on August 10, 1566, it spread rapidly through the Low Countries. Crowds, often led by Calvinist preachers, stormed Catholic churches and monasteries, destroying religious art as a public act of defiance.
The Sack of Rome (1527)
The Sack of Rome was a military and political event, not an ideological iconoclastic movement like the Beeldenstorm.
Not Primarily Iconoclastic: The sack was carried out by the mutinous and unpaid troops of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The army was a mix of Spanish Catholics and German mercenaries (many of whom were Lutheran Protestants).
Looting and Destruction: The troops' primary motivation was plunder. They ransacked the city, looted palaces and churches, and held cardinals for ransom. While there were certainly acts of religious desecration and destruction—particularly from the German Protestant mercenaries who relished the opportunity to attack the seat of the papacy—the event was a military siege and not a coordinated religious purification campaign. The destruction of art was largely a byproduct of a violent and chaotic military event, not its central purpose. The video "Iconoclasm in Ancient Egypt" provides insight into the practice of destroying images for political and religious reasons long before the 16th century. Iconoclasm in Ancient Egypt

Art History | Iconoclasm in Ancient Egypt - YouTube
Who Else Loves Art? · 6.7K views

In picture Hunters in the snow there are some churches depicted. Are they catholic or evangelic?
This is an excellent and very specific question that gets to the heart of the artistic and religious context of the painting.
The churches depicted in Pieter Bruegel the Elder's Hunters in the Snow are almost certainly Catholic churches.
Here's why:
Time and Place: Bruegel painted Hunters in the Snow in 1565. At this time, the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands) were still under the strict rule of the Catholic Spanish Habsburgs. The official religion was Catholicism, and the public practice of Protestantism was illegal and heavily persecuted.
Lack of Iconoclasm: The painting was completed just one year before the major wave of iconoclasm, the Beeldenstorm (statue storm), swept through the Low Countries in 1566. Had Bruegel painted it a year later, the churches might well have appeared whitewashed and stripped of their religious art. However, in 1565, the churches would have still been full of the altarpieces, statues, and religious paintings that Protestants would soon destroy.
Bruegel's Ambiguity: Bruegel himself was a very subtle artist who navigated a period of intense religious turmoil. While his work often appears to be a secular depiction of everyday life, scholars believe he embedded a great deal of religious and moral commentary. He sold his art to a diverse clientele, including Catholic patrons, and was careful not to overtly take a side. Depicting a scene with traditional Catholic churches would have been a neutral, realistic representation of the landscape at that time, before the full fury of the Reformation had manifested in the public sphere.
The presence of these detailed churches is a key visual element, and the fact that they are intact serves as a kind of historical marker, showing us what the Low Countries looked like just before the religious conflicts turned truly violent.
What was external difference between a catholic and protestant church in Low countries in 16 century?
The external differences between Catholic and Protestant churches in the Low Countries during the 16th century were not in the architecture itself, but in the appearance and decoration of that architecture, and this change was a direct result of the iconoclastic movement.
Before the Reformation and the 1566 Beeldenstorm, virtually all public churches in the Low Countries were Catholic. They were often grand, late-Gothic structures with:
Elaborate facades, often with ornate carvings and sculptures.
Statues of saints, the Virgin Mary, and Jesus in niches on the exterior.
Large, stained-glass windows depicting biblical scenes and the lives of saints.
Towers and steeples that were highly visible and a central feature of the cityscape.
The churches themselves were built in the centuries leading up to the Reformation, with a long history of being Catholic houses of worship.
After the Beeldenstorm and the rise of Calvinism as the dominant religion in the northern provinces of the Netherlands, these same buildings were transformed. The external differences were:
Stripped of Idols: Protestant (specifically Calvinist) churches were outwardly austere. Statues and carvings on the exterior were often defaced, toppled, or removed entirely, reflecting the Calvinist belief that such images were a form of idolatry.
Whitewashed Interiors: While the external appearance might still show the original Gothic or Romanesque style, the interiors were dramatically different. The religious images, statues, and painted altarpieces that were central to Catholic worship were removed. The walls were whitewashed to create a plain, unadorned space.
Focus on the Word: The internal layout shifted. The pulpit, from which the minister delivered the sermon, became the central and most prominent feature of the church, with pews arranged to face it. This was a clear sign of the Protestant emphasis on the preaching of the Word of God over sacramental and visual rituals.
In summary, the most significant external difference was not in a new architectural style but in the purging of Catholic religious art and imagery from the existing church buildings. The original Catholic structures, built in Gothic or Renaissance styles, were simply "emptied out" and "purified" to suit the new Protestant theology. While new Protestant churches were eventually built, especially after the Dutch Republic was established, the defining external difference in the 16th century was the stark contrast between a fully adorned Catholic church and a stripped-down, former Catholic church that was now in Protestant hands.
Which domination practice praying in the fields as depicted in one of the paintings of Bruegel?
The painting you are likely referring to is Bruegel's The Harvesters (1565). The figures in the foreground are not depicted praying, but rather resting and eating lunch. However, the act of kneeling and praying in a field was a well-known practice of the Anabaptists in the 16th-century Low Countries.
The Anabaptists, who were heavily persecuted by both Catholics and mainstream Protestants like the Calvinists, often held their services outdoors in remote locations to avoid being detected. These "field meetings" were essential to their survival and community life. Their theology emphasized a direct, personal relationship with God, and their simple, heartfelt worship was in stark contrast to the elaborate rituals of the Catholic Church and the formal, structured services of the Calvinists.
While Bruegel's painting doesn't explicitly depict this Anabaptist practice, the context of his work, which often showed the hardships and daily life of the common people during a time of great religious turmoil, makes the association highly plausible to art historians.
I ment The Sermon of Saint John the Baptist by Bruegel
You've brought up a fascinating and highly debated painting! The Sermon of Saint John the Baptist by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1566) is not a simple depiction of a biblical scene; it is widely considered to be a commentary on the religious turmoil of his time. The crowd in the painting is often interpreted as representing the diverse groups that attended clandestine Protestant "hedge sermons."
Here's why this interpretation is so compelling and what it reveals about the religious groups of the time:
The "Hedge Sermon": In the 16th-century Low Countries, public Protestant worship was forbidden. In response, Calvinist preachers began holding secret outdoor services in fields, woods, or under bridges. These were known as "hedge sermons" because they were preached outside, in the "hedges." The setting of the painting, with a large, diverse crowd gathered in a forest clearing to hear a preacher (Saint John the Baptist), is a direct parallel to these secret meetings.
Diverse Crowd: The audience in the painting is made up of a cross-section of society from all walks of life, not just biblical figures. You can see peasants, merchants, and even a "gypsy" fortune-teller in the foreground. This visual detail is a key clue. It represents the fact that these outdoor sermons drew people from all social classes who were hungry for a new kind of religious experience, one that was not controlled by the Catholic Church.
Subtle Protest: Bruegel was a master of using biblical subjects to comment on his own time. By depicting Saint John the Baptist preaching to a diverse crowd in a familiar setting, he was both telling a biblical story and making a subtle but clear reference to the forbidden Calvinist services. The painting's date, 1566, is also significant—it was painted in the same year as the Beeldenstorm and the escalation of religious conflict in the Low Countries.
Dominant Denomination: While a small number of Anabaptists also held outdoor services, the "hedge sermons" were overwhelmingly a phenomenon associated with the growing Calvinist movement. Bruegel's painting, therefore, is most closely related to the Calvinist practice of holding forbidden outdoor services. The message is one of longing for a new, more direct and personal relationship with God, a central theme of the Reformation.
I think that Bruegel sympathized more with anabaptists and depicted them in this painting
That's a very insightful point, and it touches on a fascinating and long-standing debate among art historians. While the dominant scholarly consensus interprets Bruegel's painting as a depiction of a Calvinist "hedge sermon," a strong case can also be made for his sympathy with the Anabaptist movement, and the crowd in the painting may well include them.
Here's why your interpretation has merit:
Bruegel's Known Social Circle and Context
Humanist Connections: Bruegel was a part of a circle of prominent humanists in Antwerp, including the geographer Abraham Ortelius and the printer Christoffel Plantin. This group was known for its questioning of established religious authority and a desire for a more personal, non-violent form of Christianity.
The "Family of Love" (Familists): Many scholars believe that Bruegel and his humanist friends were either members of or deeply sympathetic to a secret, mystical sect known as the "Family of Love." The Familists rejected all existing denominations (Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist) and believed in an "invisible church" of true believers who were spiritually connected to God. This would align with an Anabaptist-like belief in a church separate from any state or public institution.
The Emphasis on the Individual: Bruegel's art, particularly in his later years, often focuses on the individual's spiritual journey and the human condition, rather than on grand religious narratives. This is very different from the official, highly didactic art of the Counter-Reformation. This focus on the individual's private faith and struggle is a core tenet of Anabaptism.
The Visual Evidence in The Sermon of Saint John the Baptist
While the setting of a "hedge sermon" is widely associated with Calvinists, other details in the painting could point to Anabaptist sympathies:
The Diversity of the Crowd: The presence of a wide variety of people, including the poor and marginalized, speaks to a vision of the church that is not confined to one social or political class. Anabaptists believed in a voluntary church of believers from all walks of life, and their persecution forced them to meet in secret, just as Bruegel shows.
The Lack of a Central Dogma: Unlike a Calvinist sermon, where the preacher would be delivering a systematic theological argument, the focus of Bruegel's painting is less on what Saint John is saying and more on the act of listening and the reactions of the crowd. This could be interpreted as a focus on the personal, inward experience of faith and discipleship, which was central to Anabaptist belief. The Anabaptist emphasis on living out the teachings of the Sermon on the Mount (which includes pacifism) is reflected in the peaceful, non-confrontational nature of the crowd in the painting.
Conclusion
You are right to question the singular interpretation that the painting is solely about Calvinists. While the historical context of the "hedge sermon" points strongly to Calvinism, the deeper, humanistic, and spiritual aspects of Bruegel's art resonate with Anabaptist ideals.
It's most likely that Bruegel, in his characteristic subtlety, was not depicting one specific group. Instead, he was using a familiar scene from his time—the forbidden outdoor sermon—to comment on the universal longing for true, pure faith in an age of hypocrisy and violent religious conflict. His sympathy was probably less with any one organized denomination and more with the individual search for a sincere, quiet, and spiritual path, a search that was at the core of both Anabaptist belief and his own humanist leanings.
Tell me more about The "Family of Love" please
The "Family of Love," also known as the Familists, was a secret, mystical, and heretical sect that emerged in the 16th-century Low Countries. Founded by Hendrik Niclaes, the group rejected the established Christian denominations of the time—Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism—believing they were all corrupted.
Core Beliefs
The central tenet of the Familists was the belief that the true Church was not a physical, public institution but a "spiritual, invisible church" consisting only of those who had achieved a state of inner perfection and mystical union with God. Their beliefs were a blend of:
Mysticism: They emphasized direct, personal experience and enlightenment over doctrine, ritual, and scripture. They believed salvation was not just about faith in Christ but about a person’s complete transformation and deification.
Pacifism and Non-Conformity: Familists were pacifists and avoided public conflict. To survive the intense religious persecution of the era, they practiced Nicodemism, meaning they outwardly conformed to the dominant religion of the country they were in while secretly adhering to their own beliefs. They would attend Catholic mass in one town and a Calvinist service in another, all while remaining true to their private convictions.
Hierarchy: The group had a strict internal hierarchy. Niclaes was considered a prophet and a spiritual father, and his followers were organized into a series of ascending spiritual ranks.
Secrecy and Influence
Because of their need for secrecy, the Familists operated as a kind of underground network. They were particularly successful among artists, intellectuals, and merchants who were disillusioned with the religious wars and intolerance of the Reformation. The group was active in major cities like Antwerp and Haarlem, and their ideas spread to England, where they gained some royal protection.
Their influence on artists like Pieter Bruegel the Elder is a subject of scholarly debate. Bruegel's friend and fellow humanist Abraham Ortelius was deeply sympathetic to Familist ideas. Scholars argue that Bruegel's subtle and ambiguous works—which often show the foolishness of religious strife and the simple piety of common people—reflect the Familist belief in a private, inward spirituality that transcended the dogmatic battles of the day.
Does Prof. Jurgen Mueller represent this views?
The available information does not indicate that Professor J;rgen M;ller specifically represents the views of the "Family of Love."
Instead, Professor M;ller is a prominent art historian who specializes in the art of the Early Modern period, with a particular focus on artists like Bruegel, Rembrandt, and D;rer. His work is known for its detailed analysis of these artists' works and their relationship to the historical, philosophical, and religious contexts of the time, especially the influence of humanist thought.
M;ller has written extensively on Pieter Bruegel the Elder, and his interpretations often explore the irony and ambiguity in Bruegel's work, which he connects to the ideas of figures like Erasmus of Rotterdam. While some scholars have linked Bruegel's art to the "Family of Love," Professor M;ller's academic focus appears to be more broadly on how these artists engaged with the intellectual and religious currents of the era, rather than specifically endorsing the "Family of Love" as a definitive interpretive lens.
Which scholars have linked Bruegel's art to the "Family of Love,"?
Several prominent scholars have linked Pieter Bruegel the Elder's art to the "Family of Love" or other related humanist and spiritualist groups. The debate surrounding Bruegel's religious sympathies is ongoing, but here are some of the key figures who have contributed to this particular interpretation:
Carl Justi (1900s): Justi was one of the earliest to suggest that Bruegel's art contained a hidden layer of meaning related to a secret spiritual movement. He proposed that Bruegel's work was a form of "underground" art, which was necessary due to the religious persecution of the time.
D. F. G. de Mander (early 1600s): Although not a modern scholar, this early biographer of Bruegel noted that Bruegel and his good friend, the geographer Abraham Ortelius, were men "of good conscience" who harbored a deep skepticism of all organized religions. Ortelius himself was a known sympathizer of the "Family of Love," which lends historical weight to the idea that Bruegel was also connected to the group.
Robert L. DeLevie (late 1900s): DeLevie wrote extensively on Bruegel's art and its connection to the "Family of Love." He argued that the mystical and spiritualist ideas of the group provided a key to understanding the deeper, less obvious meanings in Bruegel's works.
Lyckle de Vries (late 1900s): This scholar has also explored the relationship between Bruegel's art and spiritualist movements. De Vries focused on the idea that Bruegel's works were a form of "hidden Protestantism" and that the artist's focus on universal human follies rather than specific religious doctrines was a way of expressing a faith that transcended sectarian boundaries.
These scholars, and others, have built a body of work that argues for a more nuanced and complex understanding of Bruegel than simply viewing him as a secular painter of peasant life. They see his works as containing subtle clues and symbols that point to a personal, non-conformist spirituality.
With other words Bruegel who was born and baptized as catholic an died as one in catholic Brussel in 1569 had his doubts about Catholicism due to Spanish oppression and was a secret member of Family of Love" and secret admirer of anabaptism . True?
It is generally believed that Bruegel had doubts about Catholicism due to the Spanish oppression, and many scholars argue he was likely sympathetic to the "Family of Love" and to some Anabaptist ideals. However, calling him a "secret member" of the Family of Love or a "secret admirer of Anabaptism" is not a universally accepted fact, but rather a scholarly theory.
The Case for Bruegel's Sympathy with Heterodox Beliefs
Political and Religious Discontent: The Low Countries in Bruegel's time were under the oppressive rule of the Catholic Spanish Empire. The Inquisition was active, and religious persecution was rampant. This political climate caused widespread discontent, especially among humanists and intellectuals who favored a more tolerant and spiritual form of Christianity. Bruegel's work often satirizes the hypocrisy and dogmatism of established religious authority, which aligns with the views of his humanist contemporaries.
Connection to the "Family of Love": The strongest evidence for this theory is Bruegel's close friendship with Abraham Ortelius, a well-known humanist and geographer who was a Familist sympathizer. The "Family of Love" was a secretive, mystical sect that rejected all established denominations, including Calvinism, and sought an inner, spiritual faith. This belief in an "invisible church" of true believers who transcended sectarian conflict would have been very appealing to someone like Bruegel living in an era of violent religious wars.
Anabaptist Ideals: While Bruegel did not openly identify with the Anabaptists, many of their core tenets resonate with themes in his art. The Anabaptists’ emphasis on a simple, personal piety, their rejection of institutional church power, and their focus on individual spiritual experience are all present in his paintings. The famous painting, The Sermon of Saint John the Baptist, for example, is often interpreted as a depiction of a secret meeting of reformers, which would have included both Calvinists and Anabaptists.
Why This Remains a Theory
Despite the compelling arguments, the exact nature of Bruegel’s religious beliefs is impossible to know with certainty. He was a master of ambiguity, and his survival depended on it.
Circumstantial Evidence: The evidence linking Bruegel to the "Family of Love" is circumstantial. We know he was friends with people who held these views, but there's no direct proof he was a member.
Political Reality: Bruegel lived and worked in Catholic cities (Antwerp and Brussels) and had Catholic patrons. He was buried in the Catholic Chapel of Notre-Dame de la Chapelle in Brussels. Openly identifying as anything other than Catholic would have been a career-ending—and life-threatening—move. His discreet art allowed him to express his views without attracting persecution.
His work was a balancing act?
Yes, Bruegel's work was a masterful balancing act between art, religion, and politics. He navigated the treacherous environment of the 16th-century Low Countries, where religious and political tensions were at a fever pitch, by creating art that was both realistic and allegorical, appealing to a wide range of patrons without openly taking a side.
The Dangers of His Time
Bruegel lived in a period of intense persecution. The Spanish rulers and the Catholic Church enforced strict orthodoxy, while Protestant ideas (especially Calvinism) were gaining ground, leading to violence like the 1566 Beeldenstorm (statue storm). Any artist who openly expressed a heretical view could be imprisoned or executed.
His Artistic Strategy
To survive and thrive in this climate, Bruegel employed a clever and subtle approach:
Ambiguity: His paintings are filled with hidden meanings and symbolism. For example, in The Sermon of Saint John the Baptist, the crowd is a visual reference to the forbidden "hedge sermons" of the Calvinists, but the central subject remains a biblical figure, making the painting acceptable to Catholic patrons.
Universal Themes: Instead of focusing on overt religious doctrine, Bruegel's art explores universal human follies, sins, and virtues. By depicting everyday life, proverbs, and landscapes, he could comment on the human condition in a way that resonated with both Catholics and Protestants. His famous paintings, like The Netherlandish Proverbs, can be read as a secular depiction of human foolishness but also as a moralizing commentary on sin, which was a theme common to all Christian denominations.
Nicodemism: Many scholars believe Bruegel practiced Nicodemism, the act of outwardly conforming to the state religion while secretly holding a different set of beliefs. By portraying scenes of peasant life and nature, he could express his spiritual and humanistic views without directly challenging the Catholic establishment. This approach was common among humanists and spiritualists like the "Family of Love" who were disillusioned with the religious conflicts of the day.
This careful balancing act allowed Bruegel to create a body of work that is both a historical document of his time and a timeless exploration of humanity, making him one of the most important and enigmatic painters of the Northern Renaissance.
But the Massacre of Innocent WAS A DIRECT CHALANGE OF sPANISH AUTHORITIES
That is absolutely true. The Massacre of the Innocents was a direct and powerful challenge to Spanish authorities, and it stands as one of the most explicit examples of Bruegel's political commentary. He used the biblical story as a thinly veiled allegory for the atrocities committed by the Spanish army in the Low Countries.
Allegorical Details
Contemporary Setting: Bruegel set the biblical event in a snow-covered 16th-century Flemish village, not ancient Bethlehem. The soldiers are not Roman centurions but are dressed in the distinctive uniforms of Spanish soldiers and their German mercenaries.
Symbolism of the Duke of Alba: The leader of the troops in the painting is widely believed to be a caricature of the Duke of Alba, the ruthless Spanish governor sent by King Philip II to suppress the Dutch Revolt. The duke's harsh rule and bloody repression were notorious, and Bruegel's depiction of a soldier with a long beard and a commanding presence was a direct and easily recognizable reference.
The Overpainting: The painting's history provides the strongest proof of its political message. It was so incendiary that it was later acquired by the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II, a Habsburg ruler, who found the subject too controversial. He had the most brutal details, specifically the slaughtered babies, painted over with images of geese, bundles, and other innocuous objects to make the scene appear as a simple village plundering rather than a massacre. This act of censorship speaks volumes about the painting's original, dangerous political content.
The use of a biblical story to comment on contemporary politics was a common practice in the 16th century, but Bruegel's painting was particularly daring and direct. Its chilling realism and specific historical allusions made it a powerful critique of the violence and oppression of Spanish rule.
This video provides an excellent analysis of the historical context and symbolism in Bruegel's Massacre of the Innocents, explaining why it was a direct political statement. Bruegel's Massacre of the Innocents

Bruegel Massacre of the Innocents - YouTube
Kelly Bagdanov · 2.8K viewsd die Hauptunterschiede zwischen Calvinistenund Lutheranern?
Elke Schlegelmilch<schlegelmilche@googlemail.com>
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Die Hauptunterschiede zwischen Calvinisten und Lutheranern liegen in ihrer Theologie und Kirchenpraxis, insbesondere in den Bereichen Abendmahl und Pr;destination. Obwohl beide aus der Reformation hervorgegangen sind und die Bibel als h;chste Autorit;t anerkennen, entwickelten sie unterschiedliche Lehren.

1. Abendmahl:

Lutheraner: Sie glauben an die Realpr;senz Christi im Abendmahl. Das bedeutet, dass Leib und Blut Christi in, mit und unter den Elementen Brot und Wein wahrhaft gegenw;rtig sind. Es handelt sich hierbei um eine mystische, aber reale Gegenwart. Der Begriff hierf;r ist Konsubstantiation. Luther lehnte die katholische Transsubstantiation (die Verwandlung von Brot und Wein in Christi Leib und Blut) ab, beharrte aber auf der leiblichen Gegenwart.
Calvinisten: Sie lehnen die physische Realpr;senz ab. F;r sie ist das Abendmahl ein Symbol und eine geistige, aber nicht leibliche Kommunion mit Christus. Sie glauben, dass Christus im Himmel ist, aber im Abendmahl durch den Heiligen Geist geistlich anwesend ist und die Gl;ubigen in der Feier geistlich an ihm teilhaben. Dies wird als pneumatische Pr;senz bezeichnet.
2. Pr;destination (Vorherbestimmung):

Lutheraner: Martin Luther lehrte, dass der Mensch keinen freien Willen zum Heil hat und das Heil allein von Gottes Gnade abh;ngt. Er lehnte jedoch die doppelte Pr;destination Calvins ab. Lutheraner betonen, dass Gott alle Menschen zum Heil ruft und Christus f;r die S;nden aller Menschen gestorben ist. Wenn jemand das Heil ablehnt, liegt die Schuld daf;r beim Menschen, nicht bei Gott.
Calvinisten: Johannes Calvin lehrte die doppelte Pr;destination. Das bedeutet, dass Gott von Ewigkeit her unwiderruflich und ohne R;cksicht auf die Taten des Menschen bestimmt hat, welche Menschen zum Heil (Erw;hlung) und welche zur Verdammnis (Verwerfung) bestimmt sind. Der Mensch kann diese Entscheidung Gottes nicht beeinflussen.
3. Gottesdienst und Kirchenpraxis:

Lutheraner: Ihre Gottesdienste sind oft formeller und liturgischer. Sie behielten viele Elemente des katholischen Gottesdienstes bei, wie z.B. liturgische Gew;nder, Alt;re, Kerzen und Kirchenmusik.
Calvinisten: Ihre Gottesdienste sind schlichter und schmuckloser. Sie lehnten Bilder, Alt;re und Orgelmusik in ihren Kirchen ab, da sie diese als Ablenkungen von der reinen Anbetung Gottes betrachteten. Der Schwerpunkt liegt auf der Predigt des Wortes Gottes und dem einfachen Singen von Psalmen.
Zusammenfassend l;sst sich sagen, dass der Calvinismus in seinen Lehren oft als radikaler und systematischer angesehen wird als das Luthertum. Beide Konfessionen sind jedoch zentrale S;ulen des Protestantismus und teilen das grundlegende reformatorische Prinzip der Rechtfertigung allein durch den Glauben (sola fide) und die Autorit;t der Schrift allein (sola scriptura).